11.6 Øvingseksamen 1 — temablokk-format (engelsk, symbolliste)

Sist du var her — de sju tingene fasitene bygger på, ferdig oppfrisket:

- Formell føring i tre trinn: presist svar, testen gjennomført på materialet, eget eksempel eller kontrasttilfelle.
- Redegjørende føring i fem trekk: definisjon med engelsk term, komplett taksonomi, mekanismen forklart, egne eksempler, avgrensning.
- Negasjonstesten skiller presupposisjon fra logisk implikasjon, og kansellerbarhetstesten skiller implikatur fra logisk implikasjon.
- Kvantorene parres fast: $\forall$ med $\rightarrow$, $\exists$ med $\land$.
- Ordnede par er ordnede. $\langle a,b\rangle$ og $\langle b,a\rangle$ er to forskjellige objekter.
- Situasjonstype avgjøres på hele verbfrasen, og klassen skrives etter trekkene.
- Et konseptuelt tre er komplett eller galt: GO krever et [Path], BE og STAY krever et [Place].

Symbolene som brukes, står samlet i symbol- og formellisten nederst — og i settets egen liste rett under.

Exam paper — LING1100 practice set 1

Nyskrevet øvingseksamen — skrevet av oss for denne boka etter mønster fra materialet. Ingen oppgave er gjengitt fra et virkelig sett.

> Instructions. The paper consists of five Topics. Each Topic contains three questions. Answer exactly two questions in each Topic, so that you submit ten answers in total. Answering all three questions in a Topic gives you no extra credit.
>
> Time: four hours. No aids are permitted. Digital hand drawing is available for questions that ask for a diagram.
>
> You may answer in English or in Norwegian.

Symbol list

¬   negation                 ∧   conjunction              ∨   inclusive disjunction
⊻   exclusive disjunction    →   material implication     ↔   biconditional
⊨   entailment               ∀   universal quantifier     ∃   existential quantifier
{ } set                      ⟨ ⟩ ordered pair             ∈   set membership
⟦ ⟧ denotation               ∩   intersection             ∪   union       ⊆   subset

Topic 1 — Meaning, reference and sense relations

1.1 Explain the distinction between sentence, utterance and proposition. Illustrate with your own examples how one and the same sentence can express different propositions in different contexts.

1.2 Compare a referential (denotational) theory of meaning with a representational (internalist) theory. Which phenomena speak in favour of each? Use at least two explicit points of comparison.

1.3 For each of the pairs below, state the sense relation that holds and justify your answer with a test. For the pairs that are antonyms, state which of the five types of antonymy applies, and give one word pair of your own for each of the five types.

(1) a.  the mouth of a river     —  the mouth of a person
    b.  rose                     —  flower
    c.  buy                      —  sell
    d.  alive                    —  dead
    e.  keyboard                 —  laptop

Topic 2 — Truth, entailment and presupposition

2.1 Give the truth tables for inclusive and exclusive disjunction. State the truth conditions of each in words. Then give your own example of an English or Norwegian sentence in which the exclusive reading arises, and explain whether it arises from the meaning of the connective or from something else.

2.2 For each pair below, decide whether the first sentence entails, presupposes or implicates the second. Justify each answer by running the negation test and the cancellability test.

(2) a.  Nora regrets selling her flat.
        >  Nora sold her flat.
    b.  All the applicants were interviewed.
        >  Some of the applicants were interviewed.
    c.  Some of the seats were taken.
        >  Not all of the seats were taken.
    d.  It was the caretaker who unlocked the hall.
        >  Someone unlocked the hall.

2.3 Explain what downward entailment is. Show with your own pair of sentences that a position of your choice is downward entailing, and explain the direction of the inference in set-theoretic terms.

Topic 3 — The formal toolbox

3.1 Translate each sentence into predicate logic. State your key first, marking the argument positions of every predicate.

(5) a.  Every student recommends Kim.
    b.  Some student does not recommend Kim.
    c.  No one recommends everyone.

3.2 Consider the model $M = \langle D, F\rangle$ below, where T(x) means «x is a tutor» and A(x,y) means «x advises y». Determine the truth value of each formula in $M$. Show every lookup, and point out the individual that settles the matter where there is one.

D      = { Alma, Bendik, Cora }
F(T)   = { Alma, Bendik }
F(A)   = { <Alma, Cora>, <Bendik, Cora>, <Cora, Cora> }
        a = Alma,  b = Bendik,  c = Cora

(i) $\forall x\,(T(x) \rightarrow A(x,c))$ (ii) $\exists x\,(A(c,x) \land \lnot T(x))$ (iii) $\forall x\,(A(x,x) \rightarrow T(x))$

3.3 Draw a conceptual (Jackendoff) tree diagram for the sentence below. State the main function and the root category, and explain what each node stands for. Digital hand drawing is available.

(6)  The spare key is under the mat.

Topic 4 — Situation types and thematic roles

4.1 Classify each of the sentences below for the features ±stative, ±durative and ±telic. Apply at least two diagnostic tests per sentence, state the Vendler/Dowty class, and state the tense.

(8) a.  Selma owned a small workshop.
    b.  The referee blew the whistle.
    c.  Dan had painted the shed.

4.2 State the thematic role of each of the constituents listed below, and decide for each whether it is an argument or an adjunct. Justify every answer.

(9) a.  The gardener planted the hedge along the fence.
    b.  The thunderstorm woke the children at four.

The constituents to be analysed are, in (9a): the gardener, the hedge and along the fence; in (9b): the thunderstorm, the children and at four.

4.3 Explain Dowty's proto-roles, and use them to account for the assignment of subject and object in (9b).

Topic 5 — Grice and speech acts

5.1 Explain Grice's Cooperative Principle and the four maxims. Show, with one example of your own for each maxim, how a conversational implicature arises when the maxim is flouted. Set out the inference step by step for at least one of your examples.

5.2 Explain Austin's distinction between locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Analyse one utterance of your own at all three levels, and explain what distinguishes the second level from the third.

5.3 Present Searle's five categories of illocutionary act with one example of your own for each. Explain which categories are inherently face-threatening, and whose face is threatened.

Etter settet

— naturlig pausepunkt —

Ta pause før du går videre til kap. 11.7. Tre komplette sett er tolv timers eksamensskriving, og de bør ligge på tre ulike dager — helst i tre ulike uker.

Slik bruker du settet best etter at du har skrevet det:

- Ranger dine egne ti besvarelser fra sterkest til svakest, og se hvor de svakeste ligger. Er de i samme temablokk, vet du hva du skal lese neste gang. Ligger de sist i settet, er det tidsdisponeringen og ikke kunnskapen som er problemet.
- Tell de egne eksemplene dine. Settet ber om dem i seks av de femten spørsmålene. Kom du under, er det den billigste tingen å rette.
- Se på valgene dine. Valgte du bort en hel blokk fordi den var formell? Da har du gjort feil 7, og det er det dyreste enkeltvalget i formatet.

Og et råd om det tredje settet: kap. 11.8 har et annet format — det eldre valgformatet, med et fordelingskrav i stedet for temablokker. Det er verdt å gjøre nettopp fordi det er annerledes, siden det trener valgstrategien i en variant du ellers ikke møter.