Causes of conflict, terrorism and peacebuilding.
War and Peace: Understanding Armed Conflict
War is one of the most destructive activities that humans engage in. Throughout history, armed conflicts have killed hundreds of millions of people, displaced entire populations, and destroyed civilisations. Yet war has also been a constant feature of human societies, raising the fundamental question: why do humans go to war?
The study of war and peace is central to international relations. Political scientists, historians, and philosophers have long debated the causes of war, the conditions under which the use of force can be justified, and the best ways to build lasting peace. In the modern era, the nature of warfare itself has changed dramatically, from the trench warfare of the First World War to the drone strikes and cyber-attacks of the twenty-first century.
Understanding war requires examining it from multiple perspectives: the political decisions that lead to conflict, the legal frameworks that attempt to regulate it, the human suffering it causes, and the difficult process of rebuilding societies after violence has ended.
Scholars identify a range of factors that contribute to the outbreak of armed conflict:
Structural causes:
- Competition for territory, resources, or strategic advantage
- Power imbalances or shifts in the balance of power between states
- Weak or failed states that cannot maintain order
Political causes:
- Aggressive or expansionist ideologies
- Authoritarian regimes that suppress dissent and use external enemies to maintain power
- Nationalism and ethnic or religious tensions
Economic causes:
- Competition for valuable resources (oil, minerals, water)
- Economic inequality and marginalisation of groups
- The influence of the arms industry and military-industrial complex
Immediate triggers:
- Assassination, border incidents, or provocations
- Miscalculation or misperception of the other side's intentions
- Escalation spirals where each side responds to perceived threats
Most wars result from a combination of these factors rather than a single cause. The debate over the relative importance of different causes remains one of the central questions in the study of international relations.
The Changing Nature of Warfare
The way wars are fought has changed dramatically over the past century. Understanding these changes is essential for analysing contemporary conflicts.
Interstate vs. intrastate conflict: After 1945, wars between states (interstate conflicts) have become less common, while civil wars and internal conflicts (intrastate conflicts) have become the dominant form of armed violence. Since the end of the Cold War, the vast majority of armed conflicts have been fought within states rather than between them.
Asymmetric warfare: Modern conflicts often involve parties of very unequal military strength. Weaker parties use guerrilla tactics, improvised explosive devices, and terrorism to offset their disadvantage. This makes conventional military superiority less decisive.
Technology and warfare: Drones, precision-guided munitions, cyber-attacks, and artificial intelligence are transforming how wars are fought. These technologies raise new ethical and legal questions about accountability, civilian harm, and the threshold for using force.
The human cost: Despite changes in technology, the human cost of war remains immense. Civilians bear the brunt of modern conflicts, accounting for the majority of casualties. Displacement, trauma, destruction of infrastructure, and the collapse of healthcare and education systems cause suffering that lasts generations.
Which of the following best describes "asymmetric warfare"?
What is the core idea behind the Responsibility to Protect (R2P)?
Key principles of IHL:
- Distinction: Parties must distinguish between combatants and civilians. Deliberate targeting of civilians is prohibited.
- Proportionality: The harm caused by an attack must not be excessive in relation to the military advantage gained.
- Military necessity: Force may only be used to the extent necessary to achieve a legitimate military objective.
- Humane treatment: Prisoners of war and wounded combatants must be treated humanely.
Just War Theory is a philosophical tradition dating back to St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. It establishes criteria for when going to war is morally justified (jus ad bellum) and how war should be conducted (jus in bello):
Jus ad bellum (right to go to war): just cause, legitimate authority, right intention, last resort, reasonable chance of success.
Jus in bello (conduct in war): distinction, proportionality, no use of inherently evil means.
These principles underpin modern international law and continue to shape debates about military intervention.
Apply Just War Theory to a specific military intervention (such as the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, or the NATO intervention in Libya in 2011). Did the intervention meet the criteria for a "just war"? Explain your reasoning.
Explain what transitional justice means and discuss why it is important for building peace after a conflict. Give examples of different transitional justice mechanisms.
Summary
In this chapter you have learned:
- Wars arise from a complex interaction of structural, political, economic, and immediate causes
- The nature of warfare has changed: intrastate conflicts and asymmetric warfare are now more common than traditional wars between states
- International Humanitarian Law (the Geneva Conventions) and Just War Theory provide frameworks for regulating the use of force
- The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) represents a shift in thinking about sovereignty and intervention
- Transitional justice is essential for building lasting peace after conflict
Key Concepts
| Concept | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Just War Theory | Philosophical criteria for when force is morally justified |
| Geneva Conventions | International rules limiting the effects of armed conflict |
| Asymmetric warfare | Conflict between parties of unequal military strength |
| R2P | International responsibility to protect populations from mass atrocities |
| Transitional justice | Measures to address past abuses and build post-conflict peace |
The use of armed drones has become increasingly common in modern warfare. Discuss the ethical and legal issues raised by drone warfare, with reference to international humanitarian law and Just War Theory.
Choose a current or recent armed conflict and analyse its causes using the categories discussed in this chapter (structural, political, economic, and immediate triggers). Write a structured analysis of 300-500 words.
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