6.2 World Englishes
Explore how English is spoken around the world, from Indian English to Singlish, and understand Kachru's Three Circles model.
World Englishes
There is no single "correct" English. Today, English is spoken by approximately 1.5 billion people worldwide, but only about 400 million of them are native speakers. The vast majority of English speakers use it as a second or additional language, and they have developed their own varieties — each with its own grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and cultural identity.
These varieties are not "broken English" or "mistakes." They are legitimate, rule-governed language systems that reflect the histories, cultures, and identities of the communities that use them. Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean English, Jamaican English, and South African English are just a few of the many World Englishes that exist today.
Why does this matter?
- Understanding World Englishes helps you communicate more effectively with people from diverse backgrounds
- It challenges the idea that British or American English is the "correct" standard
- It shows how language, culture, and history are deeply connected
- It prepares you for a globalised world where you will encounter many Englishes
In this chapter, you will explore the concept of World Englishes, learn about Kachru's influential model, examine specific varieties, and think critically about language, power, and identity.
In 1985, the Indian linguist Braj Kachru proposed a model for understanding the global spread of English. He divided English-speaking countries into three concentric circles:
The Inner Circle
Countries where English is the primary native language: the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland.
- English is the dominant language of government, education, and daily life.
- These countries have traditionally been seen as the "norm-providing" centres of English.
The Outer Circle
Countries where English is an official or important second language due to colonial history: India, Nigeria, Singapore, the Philippines, Kenya, South Africa, Malaysia, and many others.
- English is used in government, law, education, and media alongside local languages.
- These countries have developed their own nativised varieties of English with distinct features.
- They are "norm-developing" — creating their own standards.
The Expanding Circle
Countries where English is learned as a foreign language and has no official status: Norway, China, Brazil, Japan, Russia, Germany, and most of the world.
- English is used for international communication, business, and tourism.
- These countries are "norm-dependent" — they typically follow Inner Circle standards.
Criticism of the model:
Some linguists argue that the boundaries between circles are blurring. With the internet and globalisation, English is increasingly used by everyone, everywhere, for everything — making the circles less distinct.
Each variety of English has developed its own distinctive features in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Here are some examples:
Indian English
- Uses present continuous where British English uses simple present: "I am knowing the answer" (instead of "I know the answer")
- Tag questions with "isn't it?" or "no?": "You are coming to the party, isn't it?"
- Unique vocabulary: prepone (bring forward), lakh (100,000), do the needful (do what is necessary)
- Often rhotic (pronouncing the 'r' in words like "car")
Nigerian English
- Vowel sounds often differ from British English; may merge /æ/ and /e/
- Uses expressions from local languages: "I will flash you" (give you a missed call)
- Unique vocabulary: go-slow (traffic jam), chop (eat), area boy (street youth)
- Often more syllable-timed than stress-timed
Singlish (Singapore English)
- Particles from Chinese and Malay: "Can lah!" (Yes, of course!), "Don't want leh" (I don't want to)
- Dropping of articles and subjects: "No need" (instead of "There is no need")
- Unique vocabulary: kiasu (fear of losing out), shiok (great, fantastic)
- Used informally alongside Standard Singapore English
South African English
- Influenced by Afrikaans and Zulu: braai (barbecue), robot (traffic light), now-now (soon)
- Unique pronunciation patterns, particularly of vowels
- "Is it?" used as a general tag question for surprise or acknowledgement
Examples:
- A Norwegian student saying: "That was skikkelig awkward" (mixing Norwegian and English)
- A Singlish speaker saying: "This food damn shiok lah!" (mixing English with Malay/Chinese particles)
- A Nigerian saying: "Make we jejely go" (mixing English with Yoruba for "Let's go carefully")
Why do people code-switch?
1. Identity — to express belonging to a particular cultural group
2. Precision — some concepts are better expressed in one language than another
3. Solidarity — to create a sense of closeness with the listener
4. Emphasis — switching languages can add emotional weight
5. Context — using formal English at work but local variety with friends
Is code-switching a sign of poor language skills?
No. Research shows that code-switching requires high competence in multiple languages. Speakers must know the grammar of both languages and the social rules for when switching is appropriate. It is a sophisticated linguistic skill, not a deficiency.
How do authors use World Englishes in their writing, and why is this significant?
Many authors deliberately write in their local variety of English rather than adopting British or American standards. This is a political and artistic choice.
Chinua Achebe (Nigeria) — Things Fall Apart
Achebe wrote in Standard English but wove in Igbo words, proverbs, and speech patterns to represent the Igbo worldview. He argued that African writers could "aim at fashioning out an English which is at once universal and able to carry his peculiar experience."
Arundhati Roy (India) — The God of Small Things
Roy uses Indian English syntax and rhythm: "Pappachi's Moth" and "Love Laws" reflect how Indian English plays with compound nouns and capitalisation. Her language captures the specific texture of life in Kerala.
Why this matters:
- It challenges the dominance of British/American English in literature
- It shows that English belongs to everyone who uses it
- It preserves cultural identity while communicating globally
- It enriches the English language with new expressions and perspectives
When you read texts by authors from different English-speaking traditions, pay attention to how their use of language reflects their cultural context. This is not "incorrect" English — it is English adapted to express a different reality.
Why is the idea of "Standard English" controversial, and what does it have to do with power?
The concept of "Standard English" is deeply connected to questions of power, history, and identity.
The colonial legacy:
English spread globally largely through British colonisation. In many countries, English was imposed as the language of government, education, and law — often at the expense of local languages. The idea that British English is the "correct" standard carries this colonial history with it.
Who decides what is "correct"?
Traditionally, the "standard" has been defined by educated speakers in the Inner Circle — particularly British and American elites. This means that millions of competent English speakers in India, Nigeria, Singapore, and elsewhere have been told their English is "wrong" simply because it differs from the Inner Circle norm.
The shift in thinking:
Modern linguistics recognises that all varieties of English are equally valid as communication systems. No variety is inherently better or more correct than another. The prestige of "Standard English" is a matter of social power, not linguistic quality.
However, context matters:
In academic writing, international business, and formal contexts, a widely understood variety is often practical. The key insight is that this is about appropriateness for context, not about one variety being "correct" and others being "wrong."
Being aware of these power dynamics helps you become a more critical and empathetic communicator.
According to Kachru's model, which "circle" does Norway belong to?
What is code-switching?
Approximately how many people speak English worldwide?
An Indian English speaker says "I am knowing the answer." A British English speaker would say "I know the answer." Which statement about this difference is most accurate?
Why did author Chinua Achebe choose to write in English rather than in his native Igbo language?
Which of the following is a valid criticism of Kachru's Three Circles model?
Consider this scenario: A Singaporean professional uses Standard English in business emails but Singlish with friends and family. Which analysis best explains this behaviour?
A teacher tells a student from Nigeria: "Your English has too many grammatical errors — you need to write in proper English." The student's text uses Nigerian English features consistently. What is the most nuanced response to this situation?
Oppsummering
In this chapter you have learned:
- Global English: How English has become a world language with many regional varieties.
- Kachru's Three Circles: The Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles describe how English is used around the world.
- World Englishes: Varieties such as Indian English, Nigerian English and Singlish have their own distinctive features.
- Code-switching: How multilingual speakers move between languages depending on context.
Key terms
| Term | Explanation |
|---|---|
| World Englishes | The many regional varieties of English |
| Kachru's Three Circles | Inner, Outer and Expanding Circle model |
| Singlish | The colloquial English variety of Singapore |
| Code-switching | Moving between languages within a conversation |
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